Campaign history of the Roman republic
Most of the Roman Republic's campaign history consists of land battles. Rome's army had three main purposes: to exploit incidental areas, securing its borders and to continue internal order. Rome's campaigns had two types: the territorial expansionist campaign (begun as a counter-offensive) and the civil war campaigns which plagued the Roman Republic in its final century. The Roman army weren't invincible while they also experienced many tragic defeats. It was generally the fate of even the greatest of Rome's enemies that they'd only win the battle but not win the war. These enemies included Pyrrhus and Hannibal.
EArly Republic (458-274 BC)
Early italian campaigns (458-396 BC)
The first wars of the Roman Republic were purposed both for defence and expansion. Their first barriers were the Latin towns and villages and the tribe of Sabines living in the Appennine Mountains in central Italy. But one by one, Rome defeated the Sabines and the local cities. These local cities were either Latin or Etruscan. Battles against these cities included the Battle of Lake Regillus (496 BC), the Battle of Mons Algidus (458 BC), the Battle of Corbione (446 BC), the Battle of Aricia and the Etruscan Battle of the Cremera (477 BC). These battles secured Rome's position as to have no threat from the Apennines' tribes or from the neighbouring cities.
Celtic Invasion of italia (390-387 BC)
In 390 BC, several Gallic tribes invaded Italy because of the expansion of the Celtic culture. When two Etruscan towns from the north were invaded by these Celts, the Romans were alerted. The towns called on Rome for help while they were overwhelmed with the Gauls' ferocity and numbers. So the first battle between the Romans and the Gauls was the Battle of Allia River around 390 BC. But the Gauls defeated the Roman army and chased the fleeing troops back to Rome. The Gauls, under the chieftain Brennus, sacked the city before being either driven off or bought off. This was the start of a series of bloody battles between the Romans and the Gauls for more than two centuries. This problem was not resolved until Julius Caesar defeated them at the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.
Roman expansion into italia (343-282 BC)
Rome recovered very quickly after the sack of their principal city in 390 BC. They continued their expansion straight after. In the First Samnite War, in 343 BC and 341 BC the Romans defeated the Samnites in two battles: the Battle of Mons Gaurus and the Battle of Saticula. They couldn't fight any further because their Latin allies were causing a rebellion. This resulted in the Latin War. Romans obliged the Latians to submit peace after the Battle of Vesuvius in 340 BC and the Battle of Trifanum in 339 BC. They then resumed fighting the Samnites in 327 BC which started the Second Samnite War which lasted until 304 BC. This was a longer and more serious war for both sides. It was really a stalemate between both sides until 314 BC in the Battle of Bovianum which proved the Romans triumphant. After that, the Romans had the advantage of the war and resulted the Second Samnite War in defeat for the Samnites. This added the greater part of the Samnite territory in the Apennines. But in 298 BC, the Samnites revolted again leading to the Third Samnite War. In 282 BC, in the Battle of Populonia, Rome finished off the last remains of Samnite power in the area.
Pyrrhic War (280-275 BC)
By the start of the third century BC, Rome became the main power of the Italian Peninsula. But still by this time, Rome didn't come into conflict with Carthage or the Greek kingdoms. Firstly, Rome was arguing against one of the Greek colonies who started naval battle. The Greeks requested for military aid to Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, the north western kingdom of Greece. So in 280 BC, Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 280 BC with twenty five thousand men. Rome refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus unless all of his soldiers were off Italian soil. After suffering numerous heavy defeats, Pyrrhus eventually moved his army out of Italy. In 275 BC, they battled in the Battle of Beneventum. While Pyrrhus was doubtful that he was going to defeat them, and that his army was reduced and exhausted from the five years of foreign campaigns, he retreated back to Epirus. The Pyrrhic War had a great effect on Rome while it gave them confidence with any other military conflicts with the other Mediterranean powers. The Greek kingdoms were then exploited by the Romans and Rome moved to southern Italy. Rome was dominating the Italian Peninsula and had an international military reputation by this time in 275 BC.
Mid-republic (274-148 BC)
Punic WArs (264-146 BC)
The First Punic War started in 264 BC, when inhabitants on Sicily commenced to address to the two powers between which they lay to solve internal conflicts. It consisted of seventeen battles. The first battles were on land on the island of Sicily between the Romans and the Carthaginians. Eventually, the battles changed from land to naval. This put Rome in a disadvantage when they didn't have any navy. They had to quickly build one of their own style with their own sailors. After the Battle of Agrigentum, the second major battle of the First Punic War, Rome built its first major fleet. Many people think that the Roman ships were literally copied by captured Carthaginian triremes and quinqueremes. Their new ships were installed with a corvus, which was a boarding device. This let the Romans fight land-related battles in the sea. These were very much hand-to-hand and up close so this kind of combat favoured the Romans. So Rome then defeated Carthage's naval force which shocked the Carthaginians financially and psychologically. So Carthage sued for peace.
So resuming tension between the two sides led to the Second Punic War in 218 BC, Hannibal Barca attacked a Spanish town which had diplomatic ties with Rome. Because of their loss of the navy, Hannibal trekked on land from Numidia, through the Strait of Gibraltar, across the Iberian Peninsula, through the Pyrennees and the Alps to finally reach Italy. The biggest feat of this was that he brought war elephants with him. When Hannibal arrived at the Roman borderline, they immediately started numerous successful battles against Rome. This reached an early climax with seventy thousand Roman soldiers killed because of Hannibal's elephants. The Romans held off Hannibal for three battles but then Hannibal smashed through the ministerial armies. By this time, Hannibal's brother, Handrubal came with a second army from Carthage. Handrubal broke through into Italy only to be defeated at the Metaurus River. So when the famed Roman general, Scipio Africanus came into power, he decided while they weren't able to defeat them at the Italian frontier, he set up a fleet to invade Carthage. So Hannibal was forced to withdraw back to his home but was defeated at the Battle of Zama on October 19th, 202 BC. This marked the end of the Second Punic War and the Senate of Carthage seeked for a peace process.
The city of Carthage was never able to recover after. So the Third Punic War was simply a penal mission to demolish Carthage to the ground to make Scipio absolutely sure that there wouldn't be any more rebellions against Rome from Carthage. When Carthage was firstly besieged, the people of Carthage were defenceless and surrendered immediately. So after Carthage's ultimate destruction, all of Carthage's North African and Spanish territories were now controlled by the Roman Republic.
So resuming tension between the two sides led to the Second Punic War in 218 BC, Hannibal Barca attacked a Spanish town which had diplomatic ties with Rome. Because of their loss of the navy, Hannibal trekked on land from Numidia, through the Strait of Gibraltar, across the Iberian Peninsula, through the Pyrennees and the Alps to finally reach Italy. The biggest feat of this was that he brought war elephants with him. When Hannibal arrived at the Roman borderline, they immediately started numerous successful battles against Rome. This reached an early climax with seventy thousand Roman soldiers killed because of Hannibal's elephants. The Romans held off Hannibal for three battles but then Hannibal smashed through the ministerial armies. By this time, Hannibal's brother, Handrubal came with a second army from Carthage. Handrubal broke through into Italy only to be defeated at the Metaurus River. So when the famed Roman general, Scipio Africanus came into power, he decided while they weren't able to defeat them at the Italian frontier, he set up a fleet to invade Carthage. So Hannibal was forced to withdraw back to his home but was defeated at the Battle of Zama on October 19th, 202 BC. This marked the end of the Second Punic War and the Senate of Carthage seeked for a peace process.
The city of Carthage was never able to recover after. So the Third Punic War was simply a penal mission to demolish Carthage to the ground to make Scipio absolutely sure that there wouldn't be any more rebellions against Rome from Carthage. When Carthage was firstly besieged, the people of Carthage were defenceless and surrendered immediately. So after Carthage's ultimate destruction, all of Carthage's North African and Spanish territories were now controlled by the Roman Republic.
kingdom of macedonia, the greek poleis and illyria (215-148 BC)
While Rome was preoccupied with Carthage, King Philip V of Macedonia decided to extend his borders westward. Macedonia was the northern part of the Greek Peninsula. But Rome discovered what they were up to when a Roman fleet captured some of the Macedonian envoys. The First Macedonian War saw the prevention of Philip negotiating with Hannibal by pre-occupying him. The Kingdom of Macedonia claimed some Greek city states who were Roman allies and these city states requested Rome for help. One of Rome's consuls talked to Philip trying to persuade him to give some parts of Greater Macedonia to Rome. Philip refused and Rome declared war, this starting the Second Macedonian War. In 197 BC, the Romans defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae. After this battle, Macedonia was reduced to central rump state. Then Rome turned its attention to the Seleucid Empire, which was one of the Greek kingdoms in the east. But in the Battle of Thermopylae, Rome forced all the Seleucids out of Greece and the Romans pursued them out of Greece and met them at the Battle of Magnesia.
After Philip's death in 179 BC, his son, Perseus sought to resume claiming more Greek city states. Roman envoys then discovered this and they declared war again with Macedonia, which therefore started the Third Macedonian War. Firstly, Perseus was victorious in some battles but Rome, knowing this, simply sent a stronger army. This army defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. After this battle, the Perseus surrendered ending the Third Macedonian War. Macedonia was then divided by Rome into four patron republics. Eighteen years later, a Macedonian pretender to the throne who tries to re-establish the old Kingdom. He was defeated quickly in second Battle of Pydna in the Fourth Macedonian War. The Achaean League rebelled against Rome but was defeated also. In 146 BC, the same year as the destruction of Carthage, the city of Corinth was besieged and destroyed also, leading to the league's surrender.
After Philip's death in 179 BC, his son, Perseus sought to resume claiming more Greek city states. Roman envoys then discovered this and they declared war again with Macedonia, which therefore started the Third Macedonian War. Firstly, Perseus was victorious in some battles but Rome, knowing this, simply sent a stronger army. This army defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. After this battle, the Perseus surrendered ending the Third Macedonian War. Macedonia was then divided by Rome into four patron republics. Eighteen years later, a Macedonian pretender to the throne who tries to re-establish the old Kingdom. He was defeated quickly in second Battle of Pydna in the Fourth Macedonian War. The Achaean League rebelled against Rome but was defeated also. In 146 BC, the same year as the destruction of Carthage, the city of Corinth was besieged and destroyed also, leading to the league's surrender.
Late-Republic (147-30 BC)
Jugurthine War (111-104 BC)
The Jugurthine War was a war between Rome and Jugurtha, the king of the North African kingdom, Numidia from 111 to 104 BC. This was Rome's final appeasement of North Africa where afterwards they no longer made any expansion simply because of the Sahara. While Jugurtha had already annexed the throne of Numidia, and that he was a Roman ally, Rome was convinced to intervene.
Jugurtha was captured by treachery to the Romans. This war reflected the Roman moral and ethical decline while it revealed the fact that Jugurtha could rise to power by buying Roman military and civil officials.
Jugurtha was captured by treachery to the Romans. This war reflected the Roman moral and ethical decline while it revealed the fact that Jugurtha could rise to power by buying Roman military and civil officials.
The celtic threat (121 BC) and the new german threat (113-101 BC)
Two Celtic tribes from Gaul came into contact with Rome in 121 BC and these were defeated easily. The Cimbrian War was far more serious than these clashes in 121 BC. The Cimbrian War lasted for twelve years from 113 BC to 101 BC. This was when Germanic tribes of Cimbris and Teutons invaded Rome's northern territories from Northern Europe. But there were two battles that decimated those tribes: the Battle of Aqua Sextiae and the Battle of Vercellae. This ended the first threat of the dangerous Germanic tribes.
Internal unrest (135-71 BC)
The extensive campaigns of the Roman army during the Roman Republic made the soldiers more loyal to the generals than to the state. During this time, several slave uprisings took place, known as the Servile Wars, because vast areas of land were given over as slave farming where the slaves outnumbered their Roman masters. Only in the last century BC, twelve civil wars and rebellions took place. This pattern didn't break until Octavian/Augustus became Emperor. The three Servile Wars took place between 135-71 BC where the third slave uprising was the most serious. This war was led by the Thracian leader and Roman gladiator, Spartacus and was followed by a hundred and twenty to a hundred and fifty thousand slaves from around Central Italy.
In 91 BC, the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies because in the Roman army, only the Roman citizens were awarded with rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies' objectives were achieved with over 500,000 Italians granting citizenship. It was most serious in 82 BC when Sulla caused two civil wars with Marius. In the Battle of the Colline Gate, Sulla defeated the Senate's army and entered the city of Rome. This paved the way of the wars that overthrew the Republic and founded the Roman Empire.
In 91 BC, the Social War broke out between Rome and its former allies because in the Roman army, only the Roman citizens were awarded with rewards. Although they lost militarily, the allies' objectives were achieved with over 500,000 Italians granting citizenship. It was most serious in 82 BC when Sulla caused two civil wars with Marius. In the Battle of the Colline Gate, Sulla defeated the Senate's army and entered the city of Rome. This paved the way of the wars that overthrew the Republic and founded the Roman Empire.
Conflicts with mithridates (89-63 BC) and the cilician pirates (67 BC)
Mithridates was the king of Pontus, a large kingdom in Asia Minor from 120-63 BC. He angered Rome by seeking to expand his kingdom and Rome, because of this, was keen for war. Mithridates started the First Mithridatic War by massacring the 80,000 Roman soldiers that were in his kingdom. Sulla forced Mithridates out of Greece Proper but was forced to return to Rome because of the threat by Gaius Marius. A peace was made between Rome and Pontus but it was only temporary. The second of these wars began when Rome tried to take over a province that Mithridates already claimed. In the Third Mithridatic War, first Lucius Licinius Lucullus was sent against Mithridates and then Pompey the Great. Mithridates was finally defeated by Pompey in the night-time Battle of the Lycus in 66 BC.
Then the Cilician pirates strangled the shipping lanes and plundered the cities around the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey again commanded a special naval force to campaign against the pirates. It took Pompey only forty days to clear the western portion of the Mediterranean.
Then the Cilician pirates strangled the shipping lanes and plundered the cities around the coasts of Greece and Asia. Pompey again commanded a special naval force to campaign against the pirates. It took Pompey only forty days to clear the western portion of the Mediterranean.
Caesar's Early campaigns (59-50 BC)
While he was praetor in Iberia, Julius Caesar defeated two small tribes. After Caesar's term as consul in 59 BC, he was made Governor of Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul and Illyria. While he wasn't content with this idle job, Caesar wanted to find a reason to invade Gaul. When he heard of the two tribes who were migrating towards Transalpine Gaul, he found the perfect excuse to start his Gallic Wars which lasted from 58 to 49 BC. He defeated large armies at important battles in 58 BC and 57 BC. In 55 BC and 54 BC, he made two expeditions into Britain where he was the Roman to do so. He then defeated a union of Gallic tribes in the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC where he finalised the conquest of Transalpine Gaul. By 50 BC, Rome owned the whole of the province of Gaul. Gaul remained loyal until the fall of the Western Empire in 476 AD.
triumvirates and caesar's ascension (53-30 BC)
In 59 BC, the First Triumvirate was formed between Julius Caesar, Pompey the Great and Marcus Crassus to share power and influence. Crassus launched a Roman invasion on the Parthian Empire, but after many successes, he grew more confident and travelled more into enemy territory where he was perished in the Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC. Because of the death of Crassus, Caesar and Pompey began to separate. When Caesar's daughter, Pompey's wife died, Pompey turned fully against him while Caesar was off fighting in Gaul. When Caesar heard of this, he and his hardened legions moved across the Rubicon, down the Italian peninsula to invade Rome. Pompey abandoned Rome with an army and fled to Greece across the Adriatic Sea. Caesar and his army followed him in desperation of the death of Pompey. Pompey the Great was defeated by Julius Caesar at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Pompey fled again to Egypt where he was murdered. In 46 BC, Caesar defeated the Pompeian army, under Mettelus Scipio but he lost a third of his army and he finally beat the remains of the Pompeian army completely at the Battle of Munda.
Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger because Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, a group of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, hatched a scheme and murdered Julius Caesar in March 44 BC. Mark Antony, Caesar's lieutenant, convicted Caesar's assassination and was announced as a public enemy. Gaius Octavian, Caesar's grand-nephew, commanded the war against Antony but at the Battle of Mutina, Antony was defeated by two consuls who were killed. Antony, Octavian and Lepidus came to terms in 43 BC forming the Second Triumvirate. The year after, Octavian and Mark Antony fought Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi. But the strange thing was that both of them committed suicide.
During the following civil war, Octavian constructed a power base of aegis and launched a campaign against Mark Antony. Octavian then defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. This was the last battle of the Roman Republic. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the names of "Augustus" and "Princeps" by the Senate as the person with primary status over all the Roman people. This made Gaius Octavian Rome's first Emperor.
Arguing that the Roman Republic was in danger because Caesar was now the primary figure of the Roman state, a group of senators, led by Brutus and Cassius, hatched a scheme and murdered Julius Caesar in March 44 BC. Mark Antony, Caesar's lieutenant, convicted Caesar's assassination and was announced as a public enemy. Gaius Octavian, Caesar's grand-nephew, commanded the war against Antony but at the Battle of Mutina, Antony was defeated by two consuls who were killed. Antony, Octavian and Lepidus came to terms in 43 BC forming the Second Triumvirate. The year after, Octavian and Mark Antony fought Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi. But the strange thing was that both of them committed suicide.
During the following civil war, Octavian constructed a power base of aegis and launched a campaign against Mark Antony. Octavian then defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. This was the last battle of the Roman Republic. In 27 BC, Octavian was granted the names of "Augustus" and "Princeps" by the Senate as the person with primary status over all the Roman people. This made Gaius Octavian Rome's first Emperor.