Political History
The constitutional history of the Roman Republic is divided into five phases where the first phase began with the revolution in 509 BC and the last phase ended with the Fall of the Republic and the Rise of Imperial Rome in 27 BC. The evolution of the constitution was mainly driven by the conflict between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens.
The Patrician Era (509-367 BC)
The Roman monarchy was overthrown very quickly but the constitutional changes weren't as considerable as the stories suggested. The most important essential changes concerned the leading administrator. Before the Republic, a king was elected by the Senate for a life term. After the revolution, two consuls were elected by the citizens every year. Each consul would keep his colleague in check if he abused the powers of their office. If this is seen, the punishment is open to prosecution. Immediately after the revolution, the Senate and the assemblies were as weak as during the monarchy. The office of the Roman Dictator and Master of the Horse were created in 501 BC. In 494 BC, the city was at war with two tribes. The plebeian soldiers refused to fight the enemy and made a withdrawal to the Aventine Hill. They seceded like this, because they wanted to be able to elect their own officials. The patricians agreed with this demand and the plebeians returned to war. So the plebeian tribunes came into office with two plebeian aediles for each tribune. In 443 BC, the censorship was created. From 375 to 371 BC, the Tribunes of the People used their vetoes to prevent the election of senior magistrates. This put Rome into a political crisis. In 367 BC, a law by the people of Rome that at least one plebeian aedile would be elected each year. In 366 BC the praetorship and the curule aedileship were created. Shortly after the revolution, the Century Assembly was made the main senatorial assembly. Magistrates were elected and laws were passed in this assembly.
The conflict of the orders (367-287 BC)
In 351 BC, the first plebeian dictator and the first plebeian censor was elected. In 342 BC, the Plebeian Council established limits on political offices. An individual could hold one office at a time and ten years had to pass between the end of an individual's office and his re-election. The first plebeian praetor was elected in 337 BC. Around the middle of the fourth century BC, the Ovinian law was passed which gave the power to appoint new senators to the censors as well as the consuls. It also gave the power to the censor to appoint any new magistrate to the Senate. After the Ovinian Law was passed there was an increasing amount of plebeians appointed to the Senate. But it remained difficult for the plebeians to enter the Senate if they weren't from a noble family. So the plebeian aristocracy emerged. The old aristocracy remained in place as well because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office. Only a revolution could overthrow this new structure with these two aristocracies. The Hortensian Law was passed by a dictator which ended the necessity that the patrician senators must agree before any bill considered by the Plebeian Council. In 287 BC, the plebeians seceded for the last time when the soldiers withdrew to the Janiculum Hill. By the end of the Conflict of the Orders, the plebeians had finally achieved political equality with the patricians.
The Supremacy of new nobility (287-133 BC)
The Hortensian law took away the last weapon the patricians had against the plebeians. No major political changes happened from 287 to 133 BC. The plebeians were satisfied with their position of power but didn't care to use it. This was the most militarily active era of the Roman Republic. Many plebeians grew poorer during the conclusion of this era. The long military operations led farmers to leave their homes to fight which led to the farms falling into disrepair. So the plebeian nobles started purchasing bankrupted farms at deducted prices. Countless farmers across the republic became bankrupt and thousands of unemployed plebeians flooded into Rome. Because they were so poor, they only voted for the magistrate who offered them the most. The plebeians then became very dependent to the patricians again.
from The Gracchi to caesar
The era before this saw great military successes and industrial failures. By this time, the army condition had stabilised and fewer soldiers were needed. The population of the unemployed rocketed firstly because fewer soldiers were needed and that many imported slaves were sent in from foreign countries. This made the assemblies very autonomous.
The Gracchi
The plebeian tribune who was elected in 133 BC, Tiberius Gracchus, tried to achieve a law to limit the amount that any individual could own. The patricians were the main opposition to this proposal. But the law was vetoed by another tribune, Marcus Octavius and Tiberius then used the Plebeian Council to accuse Octavius of unlawful activity. Tiberius's law was achieved but he was murdered when he stood for re-election as tribunate. Gaius Gracchus, Tiberius's brother was elected tribune in 123 BC and his main goal was to weaken the Senate and strengthen the egalitarian forces. Before this, the Senate could dispose of political enemies either by creating legal agencies or by passing an ultimate decree of the Senate. Both of these mechanisms allowed the Senate to bypass the normal process rights of the citizens. Gaius Gracchus outlawed the judicial commissions and made the ultimate decree of the Senate illegal. Also citizenship rights were granted to Rome's Italian allies. He was murdered as well in 121 BC but the Gracchi strengthened the governmental influence of the plebeians.
The populares and the optimates
In 118 BC the king of Numidia died and he was succeeded by two proper sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and one improper son, Jugurtha. The kingdom for the three sons but Jugurtha turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and banishing Adherbal from Numidia. When Adherbal fled to Rome for help, Rome tried to bring to an agreement to divide the country between the two countries. Jugurtha refused this mediation and he started an ambiguous war with Rome. Jugurtha's nemesis, Gaius Marius returned from the war in Numidia and although he was objected by the aristocrats, he was elected as a consul in 107 BC. Marius then invaded Numidia, brought the war to an end and captured Jugurtha while doing this. The populares, the aristocratic leaders who relied on the people's assemblies and the tribunate to get political power, allied themselves with Marius. In 118 BC the king of Numidia died and he was succeeded by two proper sons, Adherbal and Hiempsal, and one improper son, Jugurtha. The kingdom for the three sons but Jugurtha turned on his brothers, killing Hiempsal and banishing Adherbal from Numidia. When Adherbal fled to Rome for help, Rome tried to bring to an agreement to divide the country between the two countries. Jugurtha refused this mediation and he started an ambiguous war with Rome. Jugurtha's nemesis, Gaius Marius returned from the war in Numidia and although he was objected by the aristocrats, he was elected as a consul in 107 BC. Marius then invaded Numidia, brought the war to an end and captured Jugurtha while doing this. The populares, the aristocratic leaders who relied on the people's assemblies and the tribunate to get political power, allied themselves with Marius.
88 BC, a Roman army was sent out to put down an emerging Asian power but was defeated. One of Marius's quaestors was elected consul that year. Lucius Sulla was his name and he was ordered to command the war against this Asian power. Marius was now a member of the populares and Sulla was a member of the optimates, who were the conservative majority of the Late Roman Republic. Sulla then marched his army on Rome. He passed a law of permanently weakening the tribunate. Sulla then returned to his power against Mithridates, the Asian power. But when Sulla left again, Marius who was now leader of populares and Lucius Cinna took control of the city. Marius was then elected consul several times in a row without thinking about the decade hiatus between offices.
88BC, a Roman army was sent out to put down an emerging Asian power but was defeated. One of Marius's quaestors was elected consul that year. Lucius Sulla was his name and he was ordered to command the war against this Asian power. Marius was now a member of the populares and Sulla was a member of the optimates, who were the conservative majority of the Late Roman Republic. Sulla then marched his army on Rome. He passed a law of permanently weakening the tribunate. Sulla then returned to his power against Mithridates, the Asian power. But when Sulla left again, Marius who was now leader of populares and Lucius Cinna took control of the city. Marius was then elected consul several times in a row without thinking about the decade hiatus between offices. Sulla then made peace with Mithridates and in 83 BC, he recaptured Rome. He strengthened the aristocracy and extended the Senate. He became a dictator, passed many political reforms, resigned from dictatorship and served on last year as consul. Lucius Cornelius Sulla died in 78 BC.
88 BC, a Roman army was sent out to put down an emerging Asian power but was defeated. One of Marius's quaestors was elected consul that year. Lucius Sulla was his name and he was ordered to command the war against this Asian power. Marius was now a member of the populares and Sulla was a member of the optimates, who were the conservative majority of the Late Roman Republic. Sulla then marched his army on Rome. He passed a law of permanently weakening the tribunate. Sulla then returned to his power against Mithridates, the Asian power. But when Sulla left again, Marius who was now leader of populares and Lucius Cinna took control of the city. Marius was then elected consul several times in a row without thinking about the decade hiatus between offices.
88BC, a Roman army was sent out to put down an emerging Asian power but was defeated. One of Marius's quaestors was elected consul that year. Lucius Sulla was his name and he was ordered to command the war against this Asian power. Marius was now a member of the populares and Sulla was a member of the optimates, who were the conservative majority of the Late Roman Republic. Sulla then marched his army on Rome. He passed a law of permanently weakening the tribunate. Sulla then returned to his power against Mithridates, the Asian power. But when Sulla left again, Marius who was now leader of populares and Lucius Cinna took control of the city. Marius was then elected consul several times in a row without thinking about the decade hiatus between offices. Sulla then made peace with Mithridates and in 83 BC, he recaptured Rome. He strengthened the aristocracy and extended the Senate. He became a dictator, passed many political reforms, resigned from dictatorship and served on last year as consul. Lucius Cornelius Sulla died in 78 BC.
pompey, crassus and the catilinarian conspiracy
In 77 BC, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus was sent out by the Senate to put down an uprising in Spain. He was one of Lucius Sulla's lieutenants and many people called him Pompey. He had his mission completed by 71 BC. At the same time, Marcus Licinius Crassus had put down Spartacus's gladiator/slave revolt in Italy. Crassus and Pompey were elected consuls in 70 BC and demolished Sulla's constitution.
In 66 BC, a movement started up of using political means to address the difficulty of the various classes. The movement's leaders used any means essential to achieve their goals. Lucius Sergius Catilina consolidated this movement that was based in the town of Faesulae. This place was mainly prone to agricultural disturbance. After killing the consuls and most of the senators, Catilina would be able to achieve his reforms. This scheme was set in 63 BC. But this planned uprising was disrupted because a consul named Marcus Tullius Cicero interrupted the messages that Catilina had sent in an attempt to enlist new members to his conspiracy. So the top collaborators in Rome were executed approved by the Senate and the uprising was stopped. Then Cicero's army cut Catilina's forces to pieces. The main result of this conspiracy was the populares party was defamed.
In 66 BC, a movement started up of using political means to address the difficulty of the various classes. The movement's leaders used any means essential to achieve their goals. Lucius Sergius Catilina consolidated this movement that was based in the town of Faesulae. This place was mainly prone to agricultural disturbance. After killing the consuls and most of the senators, Catilina would be able to achieve his reforms. This scheme was set in 63 BC. But this planned uprising was disrupted because a consul named Marcus Tullius Cicero interrupted the messages that Catilina had sent in an attempt to enlist new members to his conspiracy. So the top collaborators in Rome were executed approved by the Senate and the uprising was stopped. Then Cicero's army cut Catilina's forces to pieces. The main result of this conspiracy was the populares party was defamed.
The first triumvirate
Pompey returned to Rome victorious from Asia in 62 BC but he became powerless because of the Catilinarian Conspiracy. So when Julius Caesar came back from a governorship in 61 BC, he made an easy arrangement with Pompey. Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Marcus Licinius Crassus made a private agreement, now called the First Triumvirate. This included the authorization of Pompey's arrangements. Caesar would serve as consul in 59 BC and be governor in Gaul for five years. Crassus was also promised a future consulship.
When Caesar became consul in 59 BC, he passed the laws that he had Pompey to the assemblies. But because of this, Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. The former patrician, Publius Clodius Pulcher was elected as tribune in 58 BC and he bereaved Caesar's political enemies, most of all, Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a resentful foe to Cicero because Cicero argued against him in an irreverence case. Clodius passed a law expanding the prior partial grain contribution to a fully free grain dole for citizens. But then armed gangs were formed that terrorized the city and attacked Pompey's followers. This was responded by Titus Annius Milo, leader of the counter-gangs. Ahenobarbus ran for consulship in 55 BC and this promised to take the command from Caesar. The troika was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus was promised consulship in 55 BC and Caesar's governorship was continued for another five years. But then Crassus and his son led an expedition to the Kingdom of Parthia and was defeated and killed in the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar's daughter who was Pompey's wife died giving birth severing the alliance between Caesar and Pompey. A wave of political atrocity and violence swept Rome in 54 BC. The Senate passed a conclusion saying that if Caesar didn't lay down his arms by July 49 BC, he would be an enemy of the Republic. Pompey was adopted by the Senate as their new champion against Caesar. In January 49 BC, the Senate gave Pompey dictatorial powers. On tenth of January 49 BC, Julius Caesar crossed the River Rubicon with his veteran army marching on Rome. But because of their cowardice, Pompey's army abandoned Rome to Greece and Caesar arrived in Rome unopposed.
When Caesar became consul in 59 BC, he passed the laws that he had Pompey to the assemblies. But because of this, Caesar was then made governor of three provinces. The former patrician, Publius Clodius Pulcher was elected as tribune in 58 BC and he bereaved Caesar's political enemies, most of all, Cato and Cicero. Clodius was a resentful foe to Cicero because Cicero argued against him in an irreverence case. Clodius passed a law expanding the prior partial grain contribution to a fully free grain dole for citizens. But then armed gangs were formed that terrorized the city and attacked Pompey's followers. This was responded by Titus Annius Milo, leader of the counter-gangs. Ahenobarbus ran for consulship in 55 BC and this promised to take the command from Caesar. The troika was renewed at Lucca. Pompey and Crassus was promised consulship in 55 BC and Caesar's governorship was continued for another five years. But then Crassus and his son led an expedition to the Kingdom of Parthia and was defeated and killed in the Battle of Carrhae. Caesar's daughter who was Pompey's wife died giving birth severing the alliance between Caesar and Pompey. A wave of political atrocity and violence swept Rome in 54 BC. The Senate passed a conclusion saying that if Caesar didn't lay down his arms by July 49 BC, he would be an enemy of the Republic. Pompey was adopted by the Senate as their new champion against Caesar. In January 49 BC, the Senate gave Pompey dictatorial powers. On tenth of January 49 BC, Julius Caesar crossed the River Rubicon with his veteran army marching on Rome. But because of their cowardice, Pompey's army abandoned Rome to Greece and Caesar arrived in Rome unopposed.
The period of transition (49-29 BC)
The period of transition started when Julius Caesar crossed the Rubicon in 49 BC and ended when Octavian returned to Rome after Actium in 29 BC. Caesar pursued Pompey to Greece where Pompey was defeated and killed. Caesar, when he came back to Rome, he wanted to make sure that him controlling the Roman government was accepted. He used his political powers to increase his own authority and to decrease the authority of Rome's other constitutional organisations. Julius Caesar then held dictatorship and the tribunate, and he altered between consulship and proconsulship. He was given permanent tribunician powers in 48 BC. With this, he was sacrosanct, able to veto the Senate and allowed to dominate the Plebeian Council. Julius used censorial powers in 46 BC to fill the Senate with his own followers. The membership of the Senate was raised to nine hundred. The legislative elite was robbed of its influence. Near the end of his life, Caesar was preparing for a war against the Parthian Empire. He passed a law to allow him to appoint all magistrates in 43 BC and to allow him to appoint all consuls and tribunes in 42 BC. This changed the magistrates from being representatives of the people to being representatives of the dictator.
But while things were going all positively for Caesar, he was assassinated on fifteenth of March, 44 BC. This murder was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Most of the accomplices were senators who had various reasons for carrying out this assassination. People thought that Julius was going to resurrect the monarchy and become king of Rome and that he carried out his land reforms in favour of the landless people. All the conspirators fled the city immediately after the assassination in fear of retribution. But the civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic. Mark Antony then formed an alliance with Caesar's great-nephew, Gaius Octavian (known as Augustus). Antony, Octavian and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate which had the same amount of power as Julius had before the assassination. The traitors were defeated in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Then Mark Antony and Gaius Octavian started fighting against each other. In their final fight, in the naval Battle of Actium, Antony was defeated in 31 BC, and he commited suicide with his love, Cleopatra. Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the Empire. He later accepted his title as Augustus Caesar.
But while things were going all positively for Caesar, he was assassinated on fifteenth of March, 44 BC. This murder was led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Most of the accomplices were senators who had various reasons for carrying out this assassination. People thought that Julius was going to resurrect the monarchy and become king of Rome and that he carried out his land reforms in favour of the landless people. All the conspirators fled the city immediately after the assassination in fear of retribution. But the civil war that followed destroyed what was left of the Republic. Mark Antony then formed an alliance with Caesar's great-nephew, Gaius Octavian (known as Augustus). Antony, Octavian and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate which had the same amount of power as Julius had before the assassination. The traitors were defeated in the Battle of Philippi in 42 BC. Then Mark Antony and Gaius Octavian started fighting against each other. In their final fight, in the naval Battle of Actium, Antony was defeated in 31 BC, and he commited suicide with his love, Cleopatra. Octavian returned to Rome as the unchallenged master of the Empire. He later accepted his title as Augustus Caesar.